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Structuring

As students at LSHTM, you will need to produce essays and a longer piece of written work for your summer project. Creating a clear and logical storyline for your writing is very important and you will need to decide which sections are appropriate for different pieces of information in order to plan the overall structure of your work. There are a number of possible sections and not all genres of writing include them all. First, however, we need to find out if you know what those sections are.

Sections

Not all academic writing has the same sections but it will contain at least some of the following:

discussion, abstract/executive summary; bibliography/reference list, methods, introduction, results/findings, appendices, conclusions, literature review

1
In what order would you expect to find those sections?

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Correct, well done!

Although you may not find all these sections in a report, this is the order they appear in. Most reports and papers will have the following sections as a minimum:

Introduction; Methods; Results/findings; Discussion.

Essays will have different sections according to what sort of essay they are and what question they are answering but all will have an introduction, a main body (in which the main argument of the essay is constructed) and a conclusion.

It is important to remember that this is a general guide and there will be exceptions for different types of projects and reports. For example, if you do a systematic literature review for a project, the findings from the review will come after the 'methods' section. Some types of research (such as mathematical modeling) will necessitate including data in the methods. In such cases you will be guided by your subject tutor.

Incorrect, the answer is c).

Although you may not find all these sections in a report, this is the order they appear in. Most reports and papers will have the following sections as a minimum:

Introduction; Methods; Results/findings; Discussion.

Essays will have different sections according to what sort of essay they are and what question they are answering but all will have an introduction, a main body (in which the main argument of the essay is constructed) and a conclusion.

It is important to remember that this is a general guide and there will be exceptions for different types of projects and reports. For example, if you do a systematic literature review for a project, the findings from the review will come after the Methods section. Some types of research (such as mathematical modeling) will necessitate including data in the methods. In such cases you will be guided by your subject tutor.

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2
What information goes in which section?

Imagine you have all the information ready to write a report of your research. Match the following types of information with the section. You will need to match all the sections correctly before you check your answer.

a)
b)
c)
d)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is a) Discussion; b) Introduction; c) Methods; d) Results.

When you plan your structure you need to think about the sort of information you have to decide where it goes and decide the storyline for each section. Whether you are writing a research report, an essay or a paper for publication, it is crucial to decide the storyline and plan the structure of your writing before you start.

There are excellent guides to planning structures on Reading University's website

www.reading.ac.uk/internal/studyadvice/StudyResources/Essays/sta-structuringreport.aspx

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The Introduction

3
Is the following statement true or false?

The Introduction should explain the reasons for doing the work.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

The introduction should describe your rationale for carrying out the work e.g. 'Although much research has been carried out on the effects of low levels of attendance at school by girls in Ethiopia, there is still more to be ascertained about the reasons for their non-attendance.'

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4
Is the following statement true or false?

The Introduction should explain the question you are trying to answer.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

The Introduction should provide the focus of the research by explaining the specific question that you are trying to answer. If we continue with the example in 1) above, we could add 'What are the social and economic obstacles to girls' school attendance in Ethiopia?'

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5
Is the following statement true or false?

The Introduction should describe your findings.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!Incorrect, the answer is 'false'. You should not describe your findings in the introduction; they go in the results section.Your answer has been saved.
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6
Is the following statement true or false?

The Introduction should describe work that has already been done on this subject.

a)
b)

Correct, well done!

It is a good idea to start a sentence with a phrase such as 'Although much research has been carried out on the effects of ...........' and then cite the key pieces of research carried out thus far.

However, if you need to write a lengthy summary of work done to date, it may be a good idea to write a short introduction and follow it with a 'background' section which describes previous work on the topic.

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

It is a good idea to start a sentence with a phrase such as 'Although much research has been carried out on the effects of ...........' and then cite the key pieces of research carried out thus far.

However, if you need to write a lengthy summary of work done to date, it may be a good idea to write a short introduction and follow it with a 'background' section which describes previous work on the topic.

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7
Is the following statement true or false?

The Introduction should give a detailed geographical account of the country in which the research is being carried out.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'false'.

You do not need to give a detailed geographical description of the country but may need to highlight anything of particular relevance. For example, many students make the mistake of giving too much detail about population levels, the type of land, cultivation and so on. If this information has a direct bearing on your findings (e.g. girls do not go to school because the journey is too difficult) then it will be one of the issues you discuss in your results/findings section.

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8
Is the following statement true or false?

The Introduction should give a detailed historical account of the background situation e.g. if you are describing the current national health situation in a particular country, you should note the year the system was introduced and successive changes to the system.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'false'.

Many students use up valuable space in an essay or report with too much background information that does not have a direct bearing on the work. If you are being asked to describe the current situation in a country, you may need a brief summary of how the current situation came into being e.g. 'Following successive changes of government, education policies are unclear and there is no national strategy for providing education in rural areas. Although much research has been carried out on ........

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Literature Review

The Literature Review has to perform many functions. Read the following statements relating to the writing of a literature review and decide if they are true or false.

More details of how to write a literature review can be found on the Royal Literary Fund's website: http://www.rlf.org.uk/fellowshipscheme/writing/literaturereviews/index.cfm

9
Is the following statement true or false

The literature review provides a survey of work that has been done on your topic.

a)
b)

Correct, well done!

However, providing the survey is not the only function of the literature review - see the following question.

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

The aim of the Literature Review is to survey all the publications that are directly relevant to your research, including journal articles, reports and book chapters. However, providing the survey is not the only function of the literature review - see the following question.

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10
Is the following statement true or false?

The Literature Review must synthesise and critically analyse the work of others.

a)
b)

Correct, well done!

Your literature review must do more than simply list the existing work on your topic. It must relate that work specifically to your question and make judgments about the quality of the work done to date. There is more information about this in the 'Critical thinking' section of this material and on the Royal Literary Fund Website, http://www.rlf.org.uk/fellowshipscheme/writing/literaturereviews/index.cfm

Incorrect, the answer is false.

Your literature review must do more than simply list the existing work on your topic. It must relate that work specifically to your question and make judgments about the quality of the work done to date. There is more information about this in the 'Critical thinking' section of this material and on the Royal Literary Fund Website, http://www.rlf.org.uk/fellowshipscheme/writing/literaturereviews/index.cfm

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11
Is the following statement true or false?

The Literature Review should include all the works that have any sort of link to your research.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'false'.

If you reviewed all the literature that had any sort of link to your work, you'd never finish! You should only include the work that is directly relevant to the focus of your work.

More details of how to write a literature review can be found on the Royal Literary Fund's website: http://www.rlf.org.uk/fellowshipscheme/writing/literaturereviews/index.cfm

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12
Is the following statement true or false?

You should explain how the literature review has informed your approach to your research.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

You should describe how your review has influenced the way you have approached your research, e.g. gaps in the knowledge that your review highlighted that you now aim to fill.

More details of how to write a literature review can be found on the Royal Literary Fund's website: http://www.rlf.org.uk/fellowshipscheme/writing/literaturereviews/index.cfm

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Methods

13
Is the following statement true or false?

Your Methods section should be written with sufficient detail for your reader to replicate your work.

a)
b)

Correct, well done!

However, in some technical projects it may be necessary to include supplementary information in a technical appendix in order to provide sufficient detail for someone to replicate the study.

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

Your aim should always be to write your methods section clearly, concisely and with sufficient detail for your readers to replicate your study.

However, in some technical projects it may be necessary to include supplementary information in a technical appendix in order to provide sufficient detail for someone to replicate the study.

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14
Is the following statement true or false?

You should explain why you chose your particular method.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

In addition to describing what you did, you should explain why this was an appropriate method to use.

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15
Is the following statement true or false?

It is often a good idea to write the Methods section first.

a)
b)

Correct, well done!

You should bear in mind, however, that this is a question of personal choice and not a hard and fast rule.

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

The Methods section is one of the easiest to write as it doesn't require discussion or analysis, just a clear, thorough account of what you did. Getting it written early can help build your confidence to tackle the other sections.

You should bear in mind, however, that this is a question of personal choice and not a hard and fast rule.

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Results/Findings

16
Is the following statement true or false?

You should use whatever format (e.g. graphs, tables, text) displays your findings the most clearly.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

The aim is to show your results or findings as clearly as possible. It is often easier to display quantitative information in graphs or tables than in text.

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17
Is the following statement true or false?

It is not necessary to refer to a table of results in the text - the results table will speak for itself.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'false'.

You should always tie figures in to the text so the reader knows what part of your storyline they relate to.

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18
Is the following statement true or false?

You should always provide an interpretation for unexpected results in the text of the Results section.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'false'.

Interpretation of results generally belongs in the Discussion section - the Results/Findings section shows the results as you found them. However, this is not always the case when reporting qualitative research and it is a good idea to consult your course tutor on this point.

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19
Is the following statement true or false?

You should give each graph or table a title to explain what the figure shows.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

All figures should be numbered and labeled with a title which explains their purpose.

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20
Is the following statement true or false?

The Discussion is usually the longest section.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

The Discussion brings together all the separate sections of the report and relates them to both your original question as described in the Introduction and the literature you cited in your Literature Review.

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21
Is the following statement true or false?

The Discussion should answer the question set in the Introduction.

a)
b)

Correct, well done!

Note:

The Discussion should also clearly show that you have met your aims and objectives as outlined in the Introduction.

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

The Discussion should answer the question set in the Introduction. It should also clearly show that you have met your aims and objectives as outlined in the Introduction.

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22
Is the following statement true or false?

The Discussion should show how your research connects with the research you highlighted in your Literature Review.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

The Discussion should show how your research connects with the research cited in the Literature Review.

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23
Is the following statement true or false?

The Discussion is not the place to mention any problems you may have experienced in your study.

a)
b)

Correct, well done!

Note:

When discussing limitations it is a good idea to say what effect you think these have had on your findings or conclusions. For example, say whether you think they have had a negligible effect or if they have led to bias in a particular direction.

Incorrect, the answer is 'false'.

If you have experienced problems in your research (for example difficulties recruiting participants or unexpected results), the Discussion is the place to explain them and make suggestions for solutions.

When discussing limitations it is a good idea to say what effect you think these have had on your findings or conclusions. For example, say whether you think they have had a negligible effect or if they have led to bias in a particular direction.

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24
Is the following statement true or false?

You should use the same key terms in the Discussion as you did in the Introduction.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

The aim of the Discussion is to show how your findings connect with the original question you posed in the Introduction. If you change the terminology you use, this may be less apparent. For example, if in the Introduction you discuss the paucity of information on a particular aspect of 'violence against women' but in your Discussion say how much our knowledge of 'intimate partner violence' has increased, the connection may be less clear.

There are further tests and advice on how to write sentences, paragraphs and put them into a coherent whole elsewhere in this material.

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25
Is the following statement true or false?

You should explain any unexpected findings in the Discussion.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

You need to highlight any unexpected findings and attempt to explain them.

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Conclusion

26
Is the following statement true or false?

The Conclusion is a good place to put ideas that occur to you as your summarise your work.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'false'.

The Conclusion should not contain any ideas that you have not mentioned previously in the report or essay.

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27
Is the following statement true or false?

The Conclusions should summarise the main points of the research.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

The Conclusions should provide a brief summary of the main points of your report.

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28
Is the following statement true or false?

The Conclusions can include recommendations for further work.

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

If your findings lead to recommendations for further action, the Conclusions section is the place to put them. If your recommendations are extensive, you might consider making a separate section.

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29
Is the following statement true or false?

The Conclusions can include recommendations for action (e.g. recommendations for policy makers).

a)
b)
Correct, well done!

Incorrect, the answer is 'true'.

If your findings lead to recommendations for further action, the Conclusions section is the place to put them.

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Generally

If you want further advice, you might like to look at some of the excellent websites on structuring reports, before you begin writing up your project report.

www.reading.ac.uk/internal/studyadvice/StudyResources/Essays/sta-structuringreport.aspx

www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm

http://www.learnhigher.ac.uk/resources_for_students/Report-writing/Whats-it-all-about/Structure-of-a-report.html